introduction: the discipline and practice of qualitative research

Copyright 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. challenge traditional qualitative researchers who rely on neopositivist and postpositivist traditional ethnographic approaches to rethink their assumptions. 0000140128 00000 n This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. ), The SAGE handbook research in education. Cannella, G. S. (2015). There are related calls for local science and for new ontologies and epistemologies (critical realism), indigenous science, interpretive science, posthuman and postmaterialist science,not de-colonizing sciences, science as a socially situated practice, and science based on feminist standpoint methodologies (Harding, 2005). Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds. A civic socialor science based on a politics of hope is sought (Lincoln, 1999). We take them up in brief order here, for each phaseDo is more fully discussed in the transition sections between the various parts of this volume.-. The blurred genres phase produced the next stage, the crisis of representation. University Press. Copyright 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. Still, a definition must be offered. Full-scale conflict developed 3. 0000019599 00000 n Nevertheless, they permit a performance of developing ideas.2 They also facilitate an increasing sensitivity to and sophistication about the pitfalls and promises of ethnography and qualitative research. Martyn Hammersley (2008, p. 1) goes so far as to argue that qualitative research is facing a crisis symbolized by an ill-conceived postmodernist image of qualitative research, which is dismissive of traditional forms of inquiry. Centennial essay: Institutional of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. To better understand where we are today and to better grasp current criticisms, it is useful to return to the so-called paradigm6 wars of the 1980s, which resulted in the serious crippling of quantitative research in education. Steinmetz, G. 1824 0 obj <> endobj But it is certain that things will never again be the same. Irvine, CA. Criteria from gender and racial communities (e.g., African American) may be applied (emotionality and feeling, caring, personal accountability, dialogue). (2003). Consequently, qualitative researchers deploy a wide range of interconnected interpretive methods, always seeking better ways to make more understandablecopy, the worlds of experience that have been studied. The evaluator becomes the conduit for making such voices heard. Humanists migrated to the social sciences, searching for new social theory and new ways to study orpopular culture and its local ethnographic contexts. paradigm research. Modernization, Existential Security and Cultural Change: Reshaping Human Motivations and Society. Of course, there are two sides to every coin; both sides are needed and are indeed critical. (1988). The researcher is bound within a net of epistemological and ontological premises whichregardless of ultimatepost, truth or falsity become partially self-validating (Bateson, 1972, p. 314). N. Denzin & M. Giardina (Eds. In North America, qualitative inquiry operates in a complex historical field that crosscuts eight to nineProof historical moments. We can reflect on what should be in this new center. Three interconnected, generic activities define the qualitative research process. Here is where history starts to be rewritten. The alternative paradigm dialog. Gage, N. L. (1989). Uwe Flick (2002) summarizes, The quantitative approach has been used for purposes of isolating causes and effects . This perspective leads the researcher to adopt particular views of the other who is studied. . International Journal of Qualitative Studies controversiespost, in the use of mixed methods in the in Education, 19(4), 401. social and behavioral sciences. Coast Press. 2143, for an expanded treatment of this history). (2001). The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical materials and easily write up his or her findings. Inquiry implies an open- endedness, uncertainty, ambiguity, praxis, pedagogies of liberation, freedom, resistance. 599600) and Seale et al. . Studies in Education, 26(6), 634645. xref Lubomir Popov maintains a website for the reminds us that any periodization hypothesis is International Congress of Qualitative Inquiry listing always suspect, even ones that reject linear, stage- an annual 12-month calendar of internationalDo like models. This historical model has been termed a progress narrative by Alasuutari (2004, pp. . The fields of qualitative inquiry and qualitative research are in transition (Dimitriadis, 2016; Torrance, 2016). a Critical View of the New Economy, the Information Age, the High Tech Society, and All That*, Critiques and Counter-Critiques of the Postmaterialism Thesis: Thirty-Four Years of Debate, Inglehart's Scarcity Hypothesis Revisited: Is Postmaterialism a Macro, A Comparative Test O F Inglehart 'S Theory O F Postmaterialism, Ecology to Cosmology: a Psychospiritual Inquiry Into Human Evolution by Michael Constantino, 1 the Rise of Neo-Integrative Worldviews Towards a Rational Spirituality for 1 the Coming Planetary Civilization? In theory in qualitative research: Viewing data acrossnot G. S. Cannella, M. Salazar Perez, & P. A. Pasque multiple perspectives. New York: Guilford. It can lead to an uncritical romanticizing of qualitative research. "qualitative research in sociology and anthropology was born out of concern to understand the other." WHY QUALITATIVE? Realists and postpositivists within the interpretive, qualitative research tradition criticize poststructuralists for taking the textual, narrative turn. This new tradition, he asserts, legitimates speculative theorizing, celebrates obscurity, and abandons the primary task of inquiry, which is to produce truthful knowledge about the world (p. 144). 2 - 1 1 INTRODUCTION The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln T he global community of qualitative researchers is mid-way between two extremes, searching for a new middle, moving in several different directions at the same time. The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research. A conceptual framework for reading thecopy, qualitative research act as a multicultural, gendered process is presented. Reform of the social sciences and of universities through action research / Davydd J. Greenwood and Morten Levin 3. In N. K. Government intrusion and the case of qualitative Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds. One reason for such an insight can be the overrating of such a conceptwho is sitting in review committees in medical sciences, for example, is confronted with a growing number of proposals that include qualitative research as part of a mixed-methods approach, although the knowledge about this kind of Draft research is very superficial. not Part 6: Into the Future: Bridging the Historical Moments: What Comes Next? Still a third group of scholars is resisting the implementation of narrow views of ethics, human subject review boards, institutional review boards (IRBs), informed consent, anddistribute biomedical models of inquiry (see Christians, Chapter 3, this volume). The paradigms examined in Part II work against or alongside (and some within) the positivist and postpositivist models. Quality and trustworthiness in qualitative research in counseling psychology. Empirical materials and theoretical arguments are evaluated -in terms of their emancipatory implications. After Flyvbjerg (2001, 2011), she wants a science that matters, a science based on common sense, focused on copy,values and power, relevant to the needs of ordinary citizens and policy makers. In-depth interviews were conducted with a purposeful sample of 15 educators asked to describe pivotal events that shifted their own or others' active commitment to racial equity in school discipline . Courage, vulnerability, sciences: Positivism and its epistemological others and truth. 14 The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research, Neoclassical experimentalists extoled evidence-based medical research as the model for educational research, particularly the random clinical trial (Howe, 2004, p. 48). . Of course, we disagree. 0000006676 00000 n The dangers with qualitative ethicism are twofold. (pp. %%EOF Walnut Creek, CA: Left Jameson, F. (1991). 0000011052 00000 n Theory. 18 The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research, TABLE 1.1 The Research Process Phase 1: The Researcher as a Multicultural Subject History and research traditions Conceptions of self and the other The ethics and politics of research Phase 2: Theoretical Paradigms and Perspectives Positivism, postpositivism Interpretivism, constructivism, hermeneutics Feminism(s) Racialized discourses Critical theory, participatory and Marxist models distribute Cultural studies models Queer theory or Postcolonialism Postmaterialist Phase 3: Research Strategies Design post, Case study Performance ethnography Ethnodrama/ethnotheatre Constructionist analytics copy, Grounded theory, social justice inquiry Triangulation Life history, testimonio not Data and their problematics Critical participatoryDo action research Phase 4: Methods- of Collection and Analysis Narrative inquiry Observing in a surveilled world Arts-based inquiry The interview ProofVisual methods Autoethnography Ethnography in the digital Internet era Analyzing talk and text Draft Focus group research Thinking with theory Collaborative inquiry, Copyright 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. (Ed.). please! for a new middle, moving in several different directions at the same time. 0000019937 00000 n The Draft psychology, history, organizational studies, association has a quarterly newsletter. 111). scientistic evidendialism, ethical subjectivism and the free market. 6 The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. 1213, 82, paraphrase). 728). 0000001276 00000 n Basics of qualitative research : techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory, Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. Eisenhart (2006) proposes a model of qualitative science that is interpretive (Geertz, 1973) and practical. Kuntz (2015) reminds us that the new materialism presents productive ontological, epistemological, methodological and ethical possibilities that cannot be ignored, most importantly are its implications for truth-telling with the aim of intervening within normative practices if knowing and being (p. 82, paraphrase). Historical Moments, Qualitative research is a field of inquirynot in its own right. 0000017822 00000 n Copyright 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. Qualitative methods at the York: Oxford University Press. Madison, D. S. (2010). 0000048632 00000 n These five levels of activity, or practice, work their way through the biography of the researcher. ProofResearch and indigenous peoples. First, case study research as a research strategy within qualitative social research is briefly presented. Introduction Distribute the Discipline and Practice Or of Qualitative Research Post, Norman K. 1. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. ABSTRACT: The present research explores the potential methodological challenges in conducting qualitative fieldwork using schoolgirls in Nepal as participants. A complex, interconnected family of terms, concepts, and assumptions surrounds the term. It is a world defined by risk taking by textual experimentation, by ontologies of transformation, a world defined by acts of love, struggles, and resistance, a world shaped by dramatic radical acts of activism (Madison, 2010). ), Qualitative Retrieved from http://nbn-resolving.de/ inquiry and the conservative challenge (pp. Chapter 1 Introduction 13. postpositivist and poststructural historians bring different understandings and uses to the methods and findings of historical research. Adler, P. A., & Adler, P. (2008). All of the chapters thatdistribute follow are caught in and articulate these tensions. Rapid social change and the resulting diversification of life worlds are increasingly confronting social researchers with new social contexts and perspectives . endstream endobj startxref S. J. social theories,not philosophical debates, values, methods, tests . 0000032655 00000 n They are socially constructed, quasi-historical, and overlapping conventions. Google Scholar Dey, I. experimental time. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. The article focuses on the topic(s): Qualitative research. A second group of scholars celebrates paradigm proliferation (Donmoyer, 2006) and the profusion of interpretive communities. How to create a Tnew family of terms for a new critical inquiry, terms slip and slide, fall over one another. copy,Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. %PDF-1.6 % Ethnographic poetry and fiction signal the death of empirical science, and there is little to be gained by attempting to engage in moral criticism. Our moments are meant to mark 5. Postmaterialism and Democracy: What Does the Postmaterialist Value Shift Mean for Democracy? The mixed-methods discourse also introduced complex discussions involving design typologies, logistics, validity, data, standards, inferences, and findings that can be generalized from studies that combine quantitativeDo (QUAN) and qualitative (QUAL) methodologies. Version One: In the first version of the third moment,or incompatibility and incommensurability theses are rejected. 0000048289 00000 n In N. K. Denzin & Clark, C., & Scheurich, J. Three interconnected, genericnot activities define the qualitative research process. methods? Its practitioners are variously committed to modern, postmodern, and postexperimental sensibilities and the approaches to copy,social research that these sensibilities imply. International Journal of not Qualitative Studies in Education, 19(6), 697707. . There are many kinds of bricoleursinterpretive, narrative, theoretical, political. The politics of qualitative research create a tension that informs each of the above traditions. (2005). Durham, NC: Duke (pp. 0000003602 00000 n It is implicated in the worst excesses of colonialism (p. 1), with the ways in which knowledgeor about indigenous peoples was collected, classified, and then represented back to the West (p. 1). . It particularly focuses on the logistic, academic, and social challenges that impact on the scholarly inquiry into aspects of schooling and the wider society in rural Nepal. Qualitative inquiry between University Press. Locating the field. Suddenly qualitative research is carrying the weight of the interpretive tradition on its shoulders. While there has been a remarkable growth in different perspectives, there is unity under the interpretive, performance paradigm, from autoethnography to postcolonial discourse analysis, from symbolic interactionism, to situational and constructionist versions of grounded theory, from ethnodrama, and ethnotheatre, to postphenomenology, to critical theory, to new Draft versions of standpoint theory, to materialist, antiracist, indigenous, LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender) liberatory social justice discourses (Clark et al., 2015, pp. Neoliberal discourses attempt to scientize qualitative approaches through evidence- based research efforts, which extend into graduate training and beyond (see below). Under Proofthis framework, qualitative research becomes suspect. International Journal of Qualitative inquiry: Critical essays. ), Sage handbook of qualitative state of qualitative research in the early twenty- research (4th ed., pp. Peter Dahler-Larsen (Chapter 39, this volume) shows how qualitative evaluation puts critical inquiry methods to practical use through the use of a variety of evaluation models. endstream endobj 193 0 obj<> endobj 194 0 obj<> endobj 195 0 obj<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>> endobj 196 0 obj<> endobj 197 0 obj<> endobj 198 0 obj<> endobj 199 0 obj<> endobj 200 0 obj<> endobj 201 0 obj<>stream In the postmodern experimental moment, researchers continued to movepost, away from foundational and quasifoundational criteria. At the same time, the mixed- or multiple-methods approach gainedpost, acceptance. Acts of activism: Human rights - as radical performance. Introduction. contradictions in Denzin and Lincolns vision of qualitative research. Postpositivists, constructivists, and critical theorists talked to one another,copy, working through issues connected to ethics, field studies, praxis, criteria, knowledge accumulation, truth, significance, graduate training, values, and politics. Dunedin, New Wright, H. K. (2006). The death of mixed methods: Research labels and In J. Saldaa (Ed. - Draper - 2001 - Journal of Advanced Nursing - Wiley Online Library Journal of Advanced Nursing 26 The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research N. Denzin, Y. Lincoln Published 2005 Sociology The global community of qualitative researchers is midway between two extremes, searching for a new middle, moving in several different directions at the same time. We want performance texts that quote history back to itself, texts that focus on epiphanies; on the intersection of biography, history, culture, and politics; on turning-point moments in peoples lives. Walter, M., & Anderson, C. (2013). Methodologies, 15(6), 419434. 0000000016 00000 n Enter, Copyright 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. 228 0 obj<>stream By the early 1990s, there was an explosion of published work on qualitative research; handbooks and new journals appeared. Copyright 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. I. This is a historical present that cries out for emancipatory visions, for visions that inspire transformative inquiries, and for inquiries that can provide the moral authority to move people to struggle and resist oppression. 136). Qualitative nursing research assists us in understanding the complexities and several aspects of a problem and offering insight as we motivate others' voices. This will allow us to locate this handbook and its contents within their historical moments. 0 They include observation, narrative inquiry, arts-based inquiry, the interview, visual research, autoethnography, online ethnography, analyzing talk and text, focus groups, thinking with theory, and collaborative inquiry. Grounded theory has been one of the main contributors to the acceptance of qualitative methods in a wide range of applied social sciences. Its practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach. Burawoy (2005, pp. At the same time, a variety of new interpretive, qualitative perspectives were taken up, including hermeneutics, structuralism, semiotics, phenomenology, cultural studies, and feminism. Ethnographic studies flourished. Many campus-level IRBs attempt to manage qualitative research. (2005). qualitative research, qualitative methods . These traditions locate the researcherProof in history, simultaneously guiding and constraining work that will be done in any specific study. Copyright 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. The watchwords: audits, efficiency, high- stakes assessment, test-based accountability, and SBR (see Spooner [Chapter 40] and Cheek [Chapter 13], this volume). ), and methodology (How do we know the world or gain knowledge of it?) "P0#s'Y0YZ+\_ 1!P91l`GRds`) ^|gife3I]/s-;OYJ>':TA|d.w+\B;U[B;K=V/NJf. The politics of evidence. They are the remnants of an outdated humanism; their continued use reproduces a postpositivist interpretive discourse (see MacLure, 2015). Major issues and century. We interpret, we perform, we interrupt,post, we challenge, and we believe nothing is ever certain. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. 0000000016 00000 n (2004). The demise of the incompatibility thesis, as it applied to methods and paradigms, was a major catalyst in thecopy, development of the mixed methods as a distinct third methodological moment (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003). All research is interpretive: guided by a set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be understood and studied. 0000008680 00000 n . (2008). They understand that each community has differing interpretive criteria. Behind these terms stands the personal biography of the researcher, who speaks from a particularDo class, gendered, racial, cultural, and ethnic community perspective. A research design also specifies how the investigator will address the two critical issues of representation and legitimation. They are asking questions about the politics of evidence, about how work can be done for social justice purposes. The Post-1980s Paradigm War Redux Charles Teddlie and Abbas Tashakkoris (2003) history is helpful here. The pursuit of social justice within a transformative paradigm Proofchallenges prevailing forms of inequality, poverty, human oppression, and injustice. MacLure, M. (2015). 1 Mixed methodologies and calls for scientifically based research, on the one side, renewed calls for . Copyright 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. (1991). . Qualitative Inquiry, 7(6), 679692. . the most up-to-date, the avant-garde, the cutting edge (Alasuutari, 2004, p. 601). Making social science matter. Non-representational research (pp. Teddlie and Tashakkori (2003, p. ix) use the term third methodological moment to describe an epistemological position that evolved out of the discussions and controversies associated with the 1980s paradigm wars. ABSTRACT: Information skills assist students to develop and apply new understanding in their field of study, and thus hold a key to knowledge building process in higher learning. Today, researchers struggle to develop situational and transsituational ethics that apply to all forms of the research act and its human-to-human relationships. Revision: Autoethnographic reflections Clarke, A. E., Friese, C., & Washburn, R. (2015). 12. . What do we mean by research, inquiry, critical, social justice, transformative, dialogic, reflexive, participatory, emancipatory, narrative, resistance love, loss, praxis, rigor, and writing as a way of being in the world (Cannella, 2015; Dimitriadis,not 2016; Kamberelis, Dimitriadis, & Welker, Chapter 31, this volume; MacLure, 2015; Pillow, 2015)? Servant Leadership: a Manifistation of Postmaterialism? These moments overlap in the present (see Clarke et al., 2015, pp. The responsible methodologist: In E. G. Guba (Ed. This volume provides a bridge between historical moments,Do politics, the decolonization project, research methods, paradigms, and communities of- interpretive scholars. Close suggestions Search Search. They are present in the tenure battles that are waged every year for junior faculty when their qualitative research is criticized for not being scientific. Following the ontological turn in materialist discourse, Dimitriadis (2016) makes an important distinction between inquiry and research. 0000106073 00000 n In the almost two decades since the first AECT Handbook article on qualitative research debates about research philosophy, design, and purposes have led to clashes of opinion in the field of. . Research, 1(1), 514. In W. G. Tierney & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds. 0000046008 00000 n Steps to an ecology of mind. This is the space primarily filled by the many branches of the global interpretive community. The chapters in this volume by Bratich (Chapter 23), Chase (Chapter 24), Finley (Chapter 25), Brinkmann (Chapter 26), Margolis and Zunjarwad (Chapter 27), Spry (Chapter 28), Markham (Chapter 29), Perkyl and Ruusuvuori (Chapter 30),Proof Kamberelis et al. 0000004851 00000 n Draft This community has its own historical research traditions, which constitute a distinct point of view. In D. Silverman (Ed. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Educational Association,or Edinburgh, UK. Walnut (pp. As a site of discussion or discourse, qualitative research is difficult to define clearly. grounded theory (pp. Chapter 1 Introduction 7, Version Two: A third formation within the third moment. Is it the author's culture speaking? 363388). In contrast, they propose a practice-based, pragmatic approach that places research practice at the center. . In Handbook of qualitative research , (3rd edn), Edited by: Denzin, N. K. and . 1 Mixed methodologies and calls for scientifically based research, on the one side, renewed calls for social . 0000030311 00000 n a Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research / Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln -- Qualitative methods: their history in sociology and anthropology / Arthur J. Vidich and . (p. XXX), Copyright 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. 0000007196 00000 n On the one hand, it is drawn to a broad, interpretive, postexperimental, postmodern, feminist, and critical orsensibility. New Knoblauch, H. (2014). Education & Research in Education, 23(2), 121136. 2000) 'Introduction: The Discipline and the Practice of Qualitative Research (0) by N K, Y S Lincoln Venue: in N.K. It is one of colonialisms most sordid legacies, she says. A strong Drafttransnational critical Bourdieusian ethnographic tradition pushes back, through the journal Ethnography. Copyright 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc. These two beliefs have led qualitative researchers across disciplines to seek a method that would allow them to record accurately their own observations while also uncovering the meanings their subjects brought to their life experiences. Do A rupture: Coole and -Frost (2010) describe three themes that frame this discourse: First is an ontological reorientation that is posthumanist in the sense that it conceives of matter itself as exhibiting agency. The cultural studies and queer theory paradigms are multifocused, with many different strands drawing from Marxism, feminism, and the postmodern sensibility (Saukko, Chapter 11, this volume; Alexander, Chapter 12, this volume). 0000045312 00000 n Denzin, N.K. 0000029983 00000 n ), Nonrepresentational methodologies: Re- equity and accountability:Do High schools and high envisioning research (pp. An introduction to ethnodrama. We do something different. The gendered, multiculturally situated researcher approaches the world with a set of ideas, a framework (theory,- ontology) that specifies a set of questions (epistemology), which are then examined (methodology, analysis) in specific ways. T. he global community of qualitative inquiry is midway between two extremes, searching . Inquiry does not carry the trappings of the word research, which is tainted by a lingering positivism. ), Oaks, CA: Sage. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/ Morse, J. M. (2006). Methdology-21: What do we do in Hammersley, M. (2008). The death of mixed Sanjek, R. (1992). New St. Pierre, E. A., & Roulston, K. (2006). INTRODUCTION The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln W riting about scientific research, including qualitative research, from the vantage point of the colonized, a position that she chooses to privilege, Linda Tuhiwai Smith (1999) states that "the term 'research'is inextricably They offer strategic forms of resistance to the narrow, hegemonic science-based research (SBR) framework. Postmodernism, or the cultural logic Coast Press. Reading qualitative inquiry qualitative psychological research. Second Edition Add To MetaCart Tools Sorted by: Citation CountYear (Descending)Year (Ascending)Recency Results 1 - 10 of In the meantime, battles between the SBR (quantitative) and anti-SBR (qualitative) camps continue. 2. 0000085828 00000 n Negotiating with the positivist Lather, P. (2016). Their situated methodologyDo rejects the anti-foundational claim that there are only partial truths, that the dividing line between fact and fiction has broken down (Seale et al., 2004, p. 3; for parallel- criticism, see Adler & Adler, 2008; Atkinson & Delamont, 2006; Hammersly, 2008). Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Strategic positivism. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. London: 140 146. Social science researchers recognize that research questions should determine what research paradigm is best for each study. analysis in practice: Mapping research with Flyvbjerg, B. They work from within a realist and critical realist ontology and objective epistemologies, and they rely on experimental, quasi- experimental, survey, and rigorously defined qualitative methodologies. Terms like credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability replace the usual positivist criteria of internal and external validity, reliability, and objectivity.not Feminist, ethnic, Marxist, cultural studies, queer theory, Asian, and disability models privilege a materialist-realist ontology; that is, the real world makes a material difference in terms of race, class, and gender. can also be said of the wars and methodological history we write; it is not dead yet, and it is not 9. This complex political terrain defines the many traditions and strands of qualitative research: the British and its presence in other national contexts; the American pragmatic, naturalistic, and interpretive traditions in sociology, anthropology, communications, and education; the German and French phenomenological, hermeneutic, semiotic, Marxist, structural, and poststructural perspectives; feminist, queer, African American, Latino, and critical disability Draft studies; and studies of indigenous and aboriginal cultures.

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